6 Types of Nudges Can Affect Your Choices

Many of our choices are swayed by subtle cues or so-called “nudges” from the environment. A well-known example of this phenomenon includes the layout of a cafeteria or supermarket. Placing an item at eye level makes it more likely to be chosen—even if it’s a salad. Another classic nudge is the strategic use of language to “frame” a choice. If advertisements evoke a fear of missing out, for instance, people will be more inclined to part with their hard-earned money.

Nudging is a phenomenon that has gained much attention since the publication of Nudge, Thaler and Sunstein’s popular book on the topic. Crucially, nudges never restrict people’s choices. Instead, subtle manipulations of the choice environment (also called “choice architecture”) merely tend to influence the way choices are processed. Nudges are most powerful in situations where people make quick, intuitive decisions without engaging analytical thinking skills.

Much research has been dedicated to understanding the principles of nudging, and national governments across many countries have allocated resources to leveraging the potential of nudges for improving the wellbeing of their citizens. A notable example includes the wide distribution of posters reminding citizens of good handwashing practices during the COVID-19 pandemic. Another is the traffic light labelling of food items, which uses intuitive colour codes to signal low-calorie options, thereby nudging people into healthier living.

A framework of nudges

While nudging is a well-known concept, the term is used indiscriminately to describe a large range of different influences on people’s decisions. Cafeteria layouts, language framing, handwash posters and food packaging—all fall under the same umbrella of phenomena. New research offers a helpful framework for categorising different types of nudges. Categories are based on six distinct cognitive mechanisms, through which a nudge might influence behaviour: (1) attention, (2) perception, (3) memory, (4) effort, (5) intrinsic motivation and (6) extrinsic motivation.

Attention. In a context of ever-increasing choice, it can be difficult to compare the available options. Many people intuitively go for the choice that stands out. The first type of nudges capitalises on this fact by tapping into attentional processes. Increasing the visibility of options or highlighting them through bright colours can increase salience, thereby making these options more likely to be chosen. The strategic item placement in cafeterias is a prime example of this process. Others might include the order of items on a restaurant’s food menu or webpages with colourful items, designed to catch your eye.

Perception. The second type of nudge refers to ways in which the choice architecture influences people’s subjective perception. Framing effects that highlight particular aspects of a choice fall into this category. The type of language used in advertisements can create a sense of urgency or a fear of missing out, influencing people through their innate sensitivity to losses. Similarly, colour-coded food items might help to frame choice, with red labels signalling a health risk and green labels giving customers the proverbial thumbs up.

Memory. Forgetting is a surprisingly common reason for not acting or for failing to make a choice. This is where the third type of nudge comes in. The choice environment can offer cues that prompt people’s memory, like the simple reminders of handwashing in public bathrooms mentioned above. Another example includes email messages by online companies to inform customers about items left (unpaid) in their shopping baskets.

Effort. Nobody likes to make an effort! The fourth nudge taps into this insight and influences choices by making some options easier than others. A common example of this is the use of defaults — that is, options that automatically come into place if a person fails to make a choice. Examples include newspaper subscriptions, which renew themselves unless customers choose otherwise, or automatic enrolment in pension schemes.

Intrinsic motivation. Some nudges tap into mechanisms of internal motivation — that is, increasing people’s desire for certain options. For example, relaying information about social norms can be surprisingly powerful. In the context of medical prescribing, for example, it might help to tell doctors if their prescribing rates are above average compared to colleagues. Nobody wants to stand out, so many adapt their medical decision making as a consequence. Similarly, if wanting to increase charitable donations, it could help to tell people how much their peers have already contributed.

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Extrinsic motivation. The last type of nudge involves the process of extrinsic motivation. This includes offering external rewards for making certain choices. Receiving a sticker to inform people about a recent, voluntary blood donation could be an example. Another might involve the mentioning of professional achievements in staff meetings or organisational newsletters, thereby offering a reputational reward for a job well done.

Which nudges are best?

The framework outlined above highlights the surprising diversity of nudges and the different ways they might be used to influence people’s choices, for better or for worse. The researchers who proposed the framework provided additional insight by conducting a metanalysis of previous research on nudging. They reviewed 184 research studies that involved nudging to identify the most powerful type. Results suggest that effort-based nudges hold the biggest potential for changing people’s choices. In contrast, nudges tapping into intrinsic motivation appear to be the least powerful. While the authors warn about potential publication bias, which refers to the fact that significant or interesting research findings are more likely to get published than non-significant outcomes, these results offer some interesting insights: First, there’s a “toolbox” of nudges to choose from when trying to change people’s behaviours. Second, making a choice easy appears to be the most promising avenue. Human decision makers are busy creatures of habit, so any help with simplifying the ever-expanding maze of options is likely to go a long way.